Hyperkalemia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology (2024)

  1. Simon LV, Hashmi MF, Farrell MW. Hyperkalemia. 2023 Jan. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  2. Murata K, Baumann NA, Saenger AK, Larson TS, Rule AD, Lieske JC. Relative performance of the MDRD and CKD-EPI equations for estimating glomerular filtration rate among patients with varied clinical presentations. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011 Aug. 6(8):1963-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  3. Diercks DB, Shumaik GM, Harrigan RA. Electrocardiographic manifestations: electrolyte abnormalities. J Emerg Med. 2004. 27:153-160. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  4. Chew HC, Lim SH. Electrocardiographical case. A tale of tall T's. Hyperkalaemia. Singapore Med J. 2005 Aug. 46(8):429-32; quiz 433. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  5. San-Cristobal P, de los Heros P, Ponce-Coria J, et al. WNK kinases, renal ion transport and hypertension. Am J Nephrol. 2008. 28(5):860-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  6. Shaffer SG, Kilbride HW, Hayen LK, Meade VM, Warady BA. Hyperkalemia in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 1992 Aug. 121(2):275-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  7. Tran HA. Extreme hyperkalemia. South Med J. 2005 Jul. 98(7):729-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  8. Kahle KT, Ring AM, Lifton RP. Molecular physiology of the WNK kinases. Annu Rev Physiol. 2008. 70:329-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  9. Huang CL, Kuo E. Mechanisms of disease: WNK-ing at the mechanism of salt-sensitive hypertension. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2007 Nov. 3(11):623-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  10. Hoorn EJ, Nelson JH, McCormick JA, Ellison DH. The WNK kinase network regulating sodium, potassium, and blood pressure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011 Apr. 22 (4):605-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  11. Hadchouel J, Ellison DH, Gamba G. Regulation of Renal Electrolyte Transport by WNK and SPAK-OSR1 Kinases. Annu Rev Physiol. 2016. 78:367-89. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  12. Marino PL. Potassium. The ICU Book. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1998.

  13. Preston RA, Afshartous D, Rodco R, Alonso AB, Garg D. Evidence for a gastrointestinal-renal kaliuretic signaling axis in humans. Kidney Int. 2015 Dec. 88 (6):1383-1391. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  14. Gumz ML, Rabinowitz L, Wingo CS. An Integrated View of Potassium Homeostasis. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 2. 373 (1):60-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  15. Bhananker SM, Ramamoorthy C, Geiduschek JM, Posner KL, Domino KB, Haberkern CM, et al. Anesthesia-related cardiac arrest in children: update from the Pediatric Perioperative Cardiac Arrest Registry. Anesth Analg. 2007 Aug. 105(2):344-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  16. Einhorn LM, Zhan M, Hsu VD, Walker LD, Moen MF, Seliger SL, et al. The frequency of hyperkalemia and its significance in chronic kidney disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009 Jun 22. 169(12):1156-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  17. Raebel MA, Ross C, Xu S, et al. Diabetes and Drug-Associated Hyperkalemia: Effect of Potassium Monitoring. J Gen Intern Med. 2010 Jan 20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  18. Johnson ES, Weinstein JR, Thorp ML, et al. Predicting the risk of hyperkalemia in patients with chronic kidney disease starting lisinopril. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2010 Mar. 19(3):266-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  19. Lin HH, Yang YF, Chang JK, et al. Renin-angiotensin system blockade is not associated with hyperkalemia in chronic hemodialysis patients. Ren Fail. 2009. 31(10):942-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  20. Weir MR, Rolfe M. Potassium homeostasis and Renin-Angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010 Mar. 5(3):531-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  21. Preston RA, Afshartous D, Garg D, et al. Mechanisms of impaired potassium handling with dual renin-angiotensin-aldosterone blockade in chronic kidney disease. Hypertension. 2009 Mar 23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  22. Khanna A, White WB. The management of hyperkalemia in patients with cardiovascular disease. Am J Med. 2009 Mar. 122(3):215-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  23. Schweiger B, Moriarty MW, Cadnapaphornchai MA. Case report: severe neonatal hyperkalemia due to pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2009 Apr. 21(2):269-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  24. Papaioannou V, Dragoumanis C, Theodorou V, Pneumatikos I. The propofol infusion 'syndrome' in intensive care unit: from pathophysiology to prophylaxis and treatment. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 2008. 59(2):79-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  25. Matthews JM. Succinylcholine-induced hyperkalemia. Anesthesiology. 2006 Aug. 105(2):430; author reply 431. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  26. Piotrowski AJ, Fendler WM. Hyperkalemia and cardiac arrest following succinylcholine administration in a 16-year-old boy with acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia and sepsis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2007 Mar. 8(2):183-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  27. Gronert GA, Theye RA. Pathophysiology of hyperkalemia induced by succinylcholine. Anesthesiology. 1975 Jul. 43(1):89-99. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  28. Perazella MA, Biswas P. Acute hyperkalemia associated with intravenous epsilon-aminocaproic acid therapy. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999 Apr. 33(4):782-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  29. Carroll HJ, Tice DA. The effects of epsilon amino-caproic acid upon potassium metabolism in the dog. Metabolism. 1966 May. 15(5):449-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  30. Mattu A, Brady WJ, Robinson DA. Electrocardiographic manifestations of hyperkalemia. Am J Emerg Med. 2000 Oct. 18(6):721-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  31. Martens P, Kooij J, Maessen L, Dauw J, Dupont M, Mullens W. The importance of developing hyperkalaemia in heart failure during long-term follow-up. Acta Cardiol. 2020 Apr 8. 1-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  32. Rossignol P, et al; Heart Failure Long-Term Registry Investigators Group. Unravelling the interplay between hyperkalaemia, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone inhibitor use and clinical outcomes. Data from 9222 chronic heart failure patients of the ESC-HFA-EORP Heart Failure Long-Term Registry. Eur J Heart Fail. 2020 Apr 3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  33. Sánchez-Carpintero I, Ruiz-Rodriguez R, López-Gutiérrez JC. [Propranolol in the treatment of infantile hemangioma: clinical effectiveness, risks, and recommendations]. Actas Dermosifiliogr. 2011 Dec. 102(10):766-79. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  34. Pavlakovic H, Kietz S, Lauerer P, Zutt M, Lakomek M. Hyperkalemia complicating propranolol treatment of an infantile hemangioma. Pediatrics. 2010 Dec. 126(6):e1589-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  35. Cummings CC, McIvor ME. Fluoride-induced hyperkalemia: the role of Ca2+-dependent K+ channels. Am J Emerg Med. 1988 Jan. 6(1):1-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  36. Suzuki H, Terai M, Hamada H, Honda T, Suenaga T, Takeuchi T, et al. Cyclosporin A treatment for Kawasaki disease refractory to initial and additional intravenous immunoglobulin. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011 Oct. 30(10):871-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  37. Nowicki TS, Bjornard K, Kudlowitz D, Sandoval C, Jayabose S. Early recognition of renal toxicity of high-dose methotrexate therapy: a case report. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2008 Dec. 30(12):950-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  38. Gowda RM, Cohen RA, Khan IA. Toad venom poisoning: resemblance to digoxin toxicity and therapeutic implications. Heart. 2003 Apr. 89(4):e14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  39. New MI. Inborn errors of adrenal steroidogenesis. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2003. 211:75-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  40. White PC. Aldosterone synthase deficiency and related disorders. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2004. 217:81-87. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  41. Sartorato P, Khaldi Y, Lapeyraque AL, et al. Inactivating mutations of the mineralocorticoid receptor in Type I pseudohypoaldosteronism. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2004 Mar 31. 217(1-2):119-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  42. Geller DS, Rodriguez-Soriano J, Vallo Boado A, Schifter S, Bayer M, Chang SS, et al. Mutations in the mineralocorticoid receptor gene cause autosomal dominant pseudohypoaldosteronism type I. Nat Genet. 1998 Jul. 19(3):279-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  43. Gamba G. Role of WNK kinases in regulating tubular salt and potassium transport and in the development of hypertension. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2005. 288:F245-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  44. Boyden LM, Choi M, Choate KA, Nelson-Williams CJ, Farhi A, Toka HR, et al. Mutations in kelch-like 3 and cullin 3 cause hypertension and electrolyte abnormalities. Nature. 2012 Jan 22. 482(7383):98-102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  45. Muhammad E, Leventhal N, Parvari G, Hanukoglu A, Hanukoglu I, Chalifa-Caspi V, et al. Autosomal recessive hyponatremia due to isolated salt wasting in sweat associated with a mutation in the active site of Carbonic Anhydrase 12. Hum Genet. 2011 Apr. 129(4):397-405. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  46. Jurkat-Rott K, Mitrovic N, Hang C, Kouzmekine A, Iaizzo P, Herzog J, et al. Voltage-sensor sodium channel mutations cause hypokalemic periodic paralysis type 2 by enhanced inactivation and reduced current. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Aug 15. 97(17):9549-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  47. Humphrey T, Davids MR, Chothia MY, Pecoits-Filho R, Pollock C, James G. How common is hyperkalaemia? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and incidence of hyperkalaemia reported in observational studies. Clin Kidney J. 2022 Apr. 15 (4):727-737. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  48. Lorenz JM, Kleinman LI, Markarian K. Potassium metabolism in extremely low birth weight infants in the first week of life. J Pediatr. 1997 Jul. 131(1 Pt 1):81-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  49. Jarman PR, Kehely AM, Mather HM. Hyperkalaemia in diabetes: prevalence and associations. Postgrad Med J. 1995 Sep. 71(839):551-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  50. Reardon LC, Macpherson DS. Hyperkalemia in outpatients using angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. How much should we worry?. Arch Intern Med. 1998 Jan 12. 158(1):26-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  51. Maggioni AP, Greene SJ, Fonarow GC, Böhm M, Zannad F, Solomon SD, et al. Effect of aliskiren on post-discharge outcomes among diabetic and non-diabetic patients hospitalized for heart failure: insights from the ASTRONAUT trial. Eur Heart J. 2013 Oct. 34(40):3117-27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  52. Gheorghiade M, Böhm M, Greene SJ, Fonarow GC, Lewis EF, Zannad F, et al. Effect of aliskiren on postdischarge mortality and heart failure readmissions among patients hospitalized for heart failure: the ASTRONAUT randomized trial. JAMA. 2013 Mar 20. 309(11):1125-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  53. Mann JF, Anderson C, Gao P, Gerstein HC, Boehm M, Rydén L, et al. Dual inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system in high-risk diabetes and risk for stroke and other outcomes: results of the ONTARGET trial. J Hypertens. 2013 Feb. 31(2):414-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  54. Juurlink DN, Mamdani MM, Lee DS. Rates of hyperkalemia after publication of the Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study. N Engl J Med. 2004. 351:543-551. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  55. Paice B, Gray JM, McBride D. Hyperkalaemia in patients in hospital. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983 Apr 9. 286(6372):1189-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  56. Gurnaney H, Brown A, Litman RS. Malignant hyperthermia and muscular dystrophies. Anesth Analg. 2009 Oct. 109(4):1043-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  57. Segura J, Ruilope LM. Hyperkalemia risk and treatment of heart failure. Heart Fail Clin. 2008 Oct. 4(4):455-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  58. Gupta AA, Self M, Mueller M, Wardi G, Tainter C. Dispelling myths and misconceptions about the treatment of acute hyperkalemia. Am J Emerg Med. 2022 Feb. 52:85-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  59. Hughes-Austin JM, Rifkin DE, Beben T, Katz R, Sarnak MJ, Deo R, et al. The Relation of Serum Potassium Concentration with Cardiovascular Events and Mortality in Community-Living Individuals. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017 Feb 7. 12 (2):245-252. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  60. Braden GL, O'Shea MH, Mulhern JG, et al. Acute renal failure and hyperkalaemia associated with cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004 May. 19(5):1149-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  61. Schepkens H, Vanholder R, Billiouw JM, Lameire N. Life-threatening hyperkalemia during combined therapy with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and spironolactone: an analysis of 25 cases. Am J Med. 2001 Apr 15. 110(6):438-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  62. Zietse R, Zoutendijk R, Hoorn EJ. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base disorders associated with antibiotic therapy. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2009 Apr. 5(4):193-202. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  63. Kamel KS, Halperin ML. Intrarenal urea recycling leads to a higher rate of renal excretion of potassium: an hypothesis with clinical implications. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2011 Sep. 20(5):547-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  64. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1999 Mar 16. 130(6):461-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  65. Watson M, Abbott KC, Yuan CM. Damned if you do, damned if you don't: potassium binding resins in hyperkalemia. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010 Oct. 5(10):1723-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  66. [Guideline] Alfonzo A, Harrison A, Baines R, et al. Treatment of Acute Hyperkalaemia in Adults. The Renal Association. Available at https://ukkidney.org/sites/renal.org/files/RENAL%20ASSOCIATION%20HYPERKALAEMIA%20GUIDELINE%20-%20JULY%202022%20V2_0.pdf. June 2020; Accessed: October 7, 2023.

  67. Elliott MJ, Ronksley PE, Clase CM, Ahmed SB, Hemmelgarn BR. Management of patients with acute hyperkalemia. CMAJ. 2010 Oct 19. 182 (15):1631-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  68. Schafers S, Naunheim R, Vijayan A, Tobin G. Incidence of hypoglycemia following insulin-based acute stabilization of hyperkalemia treatment. J Hosp Med. 2012 Mar. 7 (3):239-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  69. Sterns RH, Rojas M, Bernstein P, Chennupati S. Ion-exchange resins for the treatment of hyperkalemia: are they safe and effective?. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010 May. 21(5):733-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  70. Pierce DA, Russell G, Pirkle JL Jr. The Incidence of Hypoglycemia in Patients With Low eGFR Treated With Insulin and Dextrose for Hyperkalemia. Ann Pharmacother. 2015 Sep 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  71. Dick TB, Raines AA, Stinson JB, Collingridge DS, Harmston GE. Fludrocortisone is effective in the management of tacrolimus-induced hyperkalemia in liver transplant recipients. Transplant Proc. 2011 Sep. 43(7):2664-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  72. Rogers FB, Li SC. Acute colonic necrosis associated with sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) enemas in a critically ill patient: case report and review of the literature. J Trauma. 2001 Aug. 51(2):395-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  73. McGowan CE, Saha S, Chu G, Resnick MB, Moss SF. Intestinal necrosis due to sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) in sorbitol. South Med J. 2009 May. 102(5):493-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  74. US Food and Drug Administration. Safety: Kayexalate (sodium polystyrene sulfonate) powder. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm186845.htm. Accessed: October 5, 2015.

  75. Harel Z, Harel S, Shah PS, Wald R, Perl J, Bell CM. Gastrointestinal adverse events with sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) use: a systematic review. Am J Med. 2013 Mar. 126(3):264.e9-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  76. Bakris GL, Pitt B, Weir MR, Freeman MW, Mayo MR, Garza D, et al. Effect of Patiromer on Serum Potassium Level in Patients With Hyperkalemia and Diabetic Kidney Disease: The AMETHYST-DN Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015 Jul 14. 314 (2):151-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  77. Pitt B, Bakris GL, Bushinsky DA, Garza D, Mayo MR, Stasiv Y, et al. Effect of patiromer on reducing serum potassium and preventing recurrent hyperkalaemia in patients with heart failure and chronic kidney disease on RAAS inhibitors. Eur J Heart Fail. 2015 Oct. 17 (10):1057-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  78. Rafique Z, Liu M, Staggers KA, Minard CG, Peaco*ck WF. Patiromer for Treatment of Hyperkalemia in the Emergency Department: A Pilot Study. Acad Emerg Med. 2020 Jan. 27 (1):54-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  79. Butler J, Anker SD, Lund LH, et al. Patiromer for the management of hyperkalemia in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: the DIAMOND trial. Eur Heart J. 2022 Nov 1. 43 (41):4362-4373. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  80. Kosiborod M, Rasmussen HS, Lavin P, Qunibi WY, Spinowitz B, Packham D, et al. Effect of sodium zirconium cyclosilicate on potassium lowering for 28 days among outpatients with hyperkalemia: the HARMONIZE randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014 Dec 3. 312 (21):2223-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  81. Anker SD, Kosiborod M, Zannad F, Piña IL, McCullough PA, Filippatos G, et al. Maintenance of serum potassium with sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (ZS-9) in heart failure patients: results from a phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Heart Fail. 2015 Oct. 17 (10):1050-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  82. Peaco*ck WF, Rafique Z, Vishnevskiy K, Michelson E, Vishneva E, Zvereva T, et al. Emergency Potassium Normalization Treatment Including Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate: A Phase II, Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study (ENERGIZE). Acad Emerg Med. 2020 Jun. 27 (6):475-486. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  83. Khedr E, Abdelwhab S, El-Sharkay M, et al. Prevalence of hyperkalemia among hemodialysis patients in Egypt. Ren Fail. 2009. 31(10):891-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  84. Bercovitz RS, Greffe BS, Hunger SP. Acute tumor lysis syndrome in a 7-month-old with hepatoblastoma. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2010 Feb. 22(1):113-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  85. Palmer BF, Carrero JJ, Clegg DJ, Colbert GB, Emmett M, Fishbane S, et al. Clinical Management of Hyperkalemia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2021 Mar. 96 (3):744-762. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  86. Qiao Y, Shin JI, Chen TK, Inker LA, Coresh J, Alexander GC, et al. Association Between Renin-Angiotensin System Blockade Discontinuation and All-Cause Mortality Among Persons With Low Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate. JAMA Intern Med. 2020 May 1. 180 (5):718-726. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  87. Fravel MA, Meaney CJ, Noureddine L. Management of Hyperkalemia in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease Using Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System Inhibitors. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2023 Sep 25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

  88. Di Lullo L, Lavalle C, Scatena A, Mariani MV, Ronco C, Bellasi A. Finerenone: Questions and Answers-The Four Fundamental Arguments on the New-Born Promising Non-Steroidal Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonist. J Clin Med. 2023 Jun 12. 12 (12):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  89. Zhang MZ, Bao W, Zheng QY, Wang YH, Sun LY. Efficacy and Safety of Finerenone in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Front Pharmacol. 2022. 13:819327. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  90. Wanner C, Fioretto P, Kovesdy CP, Malyszko J, Pecoits-Filho R, Schnell O, et al. Potassium management with finerenone: Practical aspects. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab. 2022 Sep 15. 5 (6):e360. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

  91. Neuen BL, Oshima M, Agarwal R, Arnott C, Cherney DZ, Edwards R, et al. Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors and Risk of Hyperkalemia in People With Type 2 Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis of Individual Participant Data From Randomized, Controlled Trials. Circulation. 2022 May 10. 145 (19):1460-1470. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Hyperkalemia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology (2024)
Top Articles
Latest Posts
Article information

Author: Duncan Muller

Last Updated:

Views: 5931

Rating: 4.9 / 5 (79 voted)

Reviews: 94% of readers found this page helpful

Author information

Name: Duncan Muller

Birthday: 1997-01-13

Address: Apt. 505 914 Phillip Crossroad, O'Konborough, NV 62411

Phone: +8555305800947

Job: Construction Agent

Hobby: Shopping, Table tennis, Snowboarding, Rafting, Motor sports, Homebrewing, Taxidermy

Introduction: My name is Duncan Muller, I am a enchanting, good, gentle, modern, tasty, nice, elegant person who loves writing and wants to share my knowledge and understanding with you.